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Section One 1- Chapter One a) Introduction b) The Name c) Origin d) Tribe clans

1- Chapter Two a) Historical background of the Zande b) Culture c) Customs & Traditions 2- Chapter Three a) Economy & Transportation b) Daily mode of life Section Two 1- Chapter One a) The Church in the Zande Region b) Islam in the Zande region c) Other religious beliefs 2- Chapter Two a) The Zande during the Turkish Rule b) The Zande during the Mahadya Section Three Chapter One a) Internal Administrative System b) Customary Law Chapter Two a) Public personalities b) Political leaders Introduction The Department concerned has taken the initiative of documenting Southern Sudanese tribes mode up of life to establish itself as a reference in Southern Sudan Affairs. In this connection, the department accomplished several encyclopedias that covered the tribes of Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk, Murle, Mundari and others. This encyclopedia deals with the Zande, a peaceful tribe interrelating with Sudan, Rwanda, Burundi and Congo (DRC), former Zaire. Perhaps that interrelation and its security associations have necessitated this documentation since interrelationship with neighboring countries, albeit positive in some respects, has more negative aspects as well. Added to that, documenting the life of this tribe comes within the context of the control by rebel movement, of the Zande region in Western Equatoria. It is believed that documentation would help the parties concerned to take the decisions aimed at freeing this state from the grip of rebellion. It is hoped that researchers will further fathom the life of this tribe. Chapter One The Name “Zande” Studies have confirmed that names of most southern Sudan tribes have their connotations and implications. The name Zande was believed to have been given to big groups that entered Sudan from Congo (Zaire) and settled on the common borders along the Mbamo River. The Zande in Bamu dialect implied the big numbers and physical strength of these groups that entered the Sudanese territories. It was said that tribes neighboring those groups gave them the name Nyam Nyam upon their entry of Sudanese territories because the latter were carnivorous. The Zande groups have been boastful of this name because it connotes strength and big numbers. The Origin of the Zande According to historians, the Zande have their descent in the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi, and all these groups are of the same origin. Studies confirmed that the Zande group that entered Sudanese territories came from North of Congo, leaving behind a big group within the Congolese territories. The group that entered Sudan settled along the Mbamo River on the border between Congo (DRC) and Sudan. Based on historical studies, that tribe was divided into the following clans: - 1- A group still living in the Congo. 2- A group that migrated to Rwanda 3- A group that migrated to Burundi 4- A group that entered Central Africa 5- A group that entered Sudanese territories. It was also said that the group that entered Sudan brought with them seeds of some crops such as Sudanese groundnuts, cassava, pineapples, and mango. Papaw, banana, Gista tree and other seeds that they grew. The groups in Sudan and Zaire (Congo) speak the Zande dialect and this confirms that the Sudan group has its ethnic in Zaire (CONGO). That group settled in western Equatoria jungles, origins neither belonging to Fertit nor to Nilotic tribes. The Zande Clans The Zande group that entered Sudan has been divided into clans, speaking the same dialect. That division was made by the Zande sultans to facilitate governance of the group. Among these clans are: 1- Sinango Zande Ruled by Sinango Manji and lives on the borders between eastern and western Equatoria. Their borders stretch up to Abiba. 2- Bangu Zande Ruled by Sultan Bangu and are spreading west of Abiba near to Yambio. 3- Congoru Zande Ruled by Sultan Congora and have spread west of Abiba, up to the Zaire borders. 4- Yambyo Zande This clan lives in northeastern region of Yambyo, the latter called after sultan Yambyo Yaroi. 5- Bantakar Zande This clan spreads over the region northeast of Yambyo, their borders extending to Ezzo region. 6- Ezzo Zande This tribe occupies the Ezzo region and its outskirts, with their border extending to Tombura region 7- Mopoi Zande This tribe lives in the regions east of Tombura, spreading over the border region between Zande and Lakes region of Dinka tribes. 8- Tombura Zande They live in the region of Tombura and its outskirts, bordering Central Africa, spreading over the border region between western Equatoria and Al Bou Bridge in Western Bahr El Ghazal. It was confirmed that it was the Sultans who founded those groups, thus, they were called after them. There are ten clans within the Zande tribe such as: - 1- Afigar: established by Sultans of Yambyo, Nzara, Na’andi, Ezzo and Tombura. 2- Abukoy: Established by deputy sultan and are found all over the Zande region too. Other smaller groups within the Zande tribes include: - 1- Afotinu, found in the Zande regions. 2- Mobuya 3- Yadgu 4- Ajini 5- Abuminira 6- Abayo 7- Aundi 8- Bawyo 9- Araqama 10. Abashiry All the Zande clans speak the same dialect and have similar traditions and customs. However, there are slight differences as regards foreboding and drums. The Zande have been known for being peaceful, a quality that distinguishes them from the rest of southern Sudan tribes. The Zande clans have also been known for cleanliness of clothes and housing. Agriculture is in the main occupation, their region being characteristic of soil fertility and rainfall throughout the year. Demographic Distribution of the Zande Tribe: The Zande spread over an area of (200) to (230) miles, extending from Yambyo in Western Equatoria to the Zande borders with eastern Equatoria. The distance between Yambyo and Tombura is estimated at (380-400) miles, and (100-110) miles from Tombura to the northern borders of western Equatoria with Western Bahr El Ghazal State. The Zande borders Central Africa and Zaire, separated from the latter by (3-5) miles. Stango Zande spread in eastern and western Equatoria up to the borders of eastern Equatoria State, with Abyan region marking their borders in Eastern Equatoria. As for Gumsoru Zande, they spread over the region west of Abyan and south to the borders between western Equatoria and Zaire. Mobi Zande occupy the region east and west of Tombura that extends to the border between western Equatoria and the Lakes state. Tribes neighboring the Zande: 1- Abaku 2- Lakes Dinka 3- Moru 4- Mundu 5- Avukaya 6- Wadi 7- Balanda 8- Balanda Buzya Natural Geography Western Equatoria state, the Zande homeland is considered one of the richest regions in Equatoria, consisting of closed jungles. The Zande region has a fertile soil that has made it rich in natural resources – such as mango, Qista trees, pineapples, apples, banana, grape fruits, papaw, lemon and all kinds of citrus fruits and vegetables. Tea and coffee beans are also grown there in addition to sugar cane and cotton. The main roads in the Zande region are cleared of fallen fruits to avoid accidents that could occur from slipping. Vegetables and fruits are grown inside house-fences. Cotton, sugar and textiles factories were established in Yambyo, Sarsi-Yubu and Nzara, where good quality cotton cloth is produced. When the Zande settled in that closed jungle region, they cultivated the seeds they brought with them, a sign of farming nature of that tribe. Rainfall stops during the months of November through January, though not altogether. The Zande region is rich in Teak, Mahogany and other kinds of wood. Their jungles are crowded with wildlife. Studies proved that the Zande region is not suitable for raising cattle, camels and donkeys due to the existence of disease-carrying mosquitoes. The tse-tse-fly exists in the region of Yambyo. Finally. It could be said that farming is the main occupation of the Zande tribes. Chapter Two Historical background of the Zande The Zande are known among other southern tribes for strength of their bodies. Since they entered the Sudanese territories they engaged in wars against the Lakes’ Dinkas and Equatorian tribes neighboring them on their borders with eastern Equatoria. That was the Zande record that went into distant history. The Zande, under Sultan Youdi seized a large number of cows from the Lakes’ Dinkas. It was historically reported that, sultan Youdi, engaged in war against the Turks while entering the town of Juba. The Zande demonstrated strength and militancy in the face of the enemy. Studies revealed that the Zande train the young on skills of hunting in the first place, and later on fighting skills. The training takes place in open camps located in all Zande regions. That training enabled the Zande to acquire strength and tolerance. The Zande used the drum (nugara) as a quick medium of communication in the following cases: - a- When their region comes under enemy attack. b- Deaths c- Marriages d- Celebrating the harvest of crops e- Conducting normal games The implication of the drum rhythms are understood by all Zande, and beating of that drum is assigned to an operator who conveys the rhythm to his counter-part in another village. The latter in turn conveys it to the one in the next village and so the rhythm message will be sent across to the targeted region. This old medium of communication is used by the Zande only. The Zande skin color is different from that of other southern tribes. Those in the region of Tombura are brown and dark-skinned. To some extent they resemble the tribes of Fertit in Bahr El Ghazal. Following the death of sultan Youdi, the Zande became one of the most peaceful southern tribes. They even began joining the armed forces after the year 1975. Culture: By virtue of education, the Zande were able to retain their old cultural heritage. The Zande were availed educational opportunities by the Italian missionaries who built a number of Schools in the Zande regions, capitalizing on Zande non-raising of animal wealth. The first schools were established in Yambyo, Nzara, Tombura and Sarsi-yubu respectively. The missionaries succeeded to instill in the Zande the interest in education by building schools in villages, and so the Zande had easy access to them. Based on statistics, the missionaries built (22-25) elementary schools, (10-12) intermediate schools in addition to an institute in Yambyo which was attended by students from Equatoria and Bahr El Ghazal tribes and Lakes’ Dinka. It was also reported the currently existing Juba University was originally planned to be constructed in Yambyo. Studies confirmed that the Zande are among the most educated southern Sudanese tribes. Among them, there were poets who wrote poems on occasions such as marriages, deaths and harvest of crops. It was also proven that the Zande used the drum as a medium of communications. An instance of the use of that drum to send messages was when slave hunters arrived in Tombura and its outskirts, hunting a large number of Zande. Upon arrival of that rhythm message to Sultan Youdi in Yambyo, he led his men to Tombura and from there to western Bahr El Ghazal till he came to the fenced sites where the slaves were kept to be traded in. The Zande used white weapons since old times, manufacturing arrows, swords and axes. Binga is a weapon unique to them and is made of harmful wood. That weapon was used by sultan Youdi in his confrontation against aggressive tribes. The Zande also manufacture weapons by crushing stones to the point of liquefying them to design them into weapons. The Zande knew the use of clothes since old times. They tailored trees barks into cloth for both males and females after rubbing them with oil to become smooth. Sultans dresses are different from those of subjects. Customs and traditions: 1- Marriages The Zande have their own customs and traditions as regards marriages. Sons in the same family get married according to the order of age, the elder first and the next in age and so forth. Upon reaching marriage age, the family selects the bride from outside the family after consulting with her family. The bride may be under the age of puberty. The purpose is to establish a pre-marriage bond between the bride and the groom. The criterion for selection of the bride is based on her beauty, polite behavior, ability of house-keeping and respect of guests. Subsequent to building his house and harvesting crops, the bridegroom gets married, giving a dancing party at which Zairean Music is played .That party is often given by the relatives and friends of the bridegroom, to be followed by the bride moved to her husband’s house, accompanied by food-stuffs collected by her family. In the past, the bride’s gown was made of trees’ barks but currently this is no longer the case. Before the Zande knew the use of money, the dowry was an arrow and a hoe paid to bride’s father and mother respectively, but currently, that dowry is paid in cash, whereas the rest of the southern tribes pay the it in animals. The Zande paid it in hoes and arrows because they did not raise animals. Instead they raised chickens which they often slaughtered on marriage occasions. Dogs are also raised for hunting purposes. Family disintegration among the Zande has led to a sharp reduction of marriage rates as reported by researchers who stated that the Zande is the sole southern Sudanese tribe threatened of perishing because of: - 1- The spread of epidemics rapidly attracted from neighboring countries of Zaire and Central Africa. 2- Family disintegration led the Zande women to have no interest in marriage bond. 3- Females are raped or married at a young age. This coupled with sexual relationships outside marriage wedlock resulted in lack of reproduction. The fall of western Equatoria in the hands of rebels in (1990) added to the process of family disintegration among the Zande. Divorce Most of the southern Sudanese tribes refer to sultans and chieftains in case of divorce as called for by their customs and traditions. In case of the Zande, divorce takes place away from the attention of sultans and in the presence of elders from the families of the husband and wife. The Zande husband may divorce his wife if : 1- He caught her practicing sex with another man, 2- She was not taking care of her husband and house-keeping, 3- Shunned by her husband, Research showed that such customs and traditions are no longer fully observed following the family disintegration the Zande experienced. In the traditions of the Zande, the wife has the right to ask for divorce if the husband does not show respect for her family. Under such circumstances, the wife would divorce her husband for good, provided that family elders would be informed of the husband’s offence and in this case, the wife would not return the dowry to the husband. But if the husband shuns his wife, the latter would not return the dowry, and sons of the divorced families would live with their father, without the wife having that night. Mourning occasions (Funerals) Since they entered Sudanese territories, the Zande maintained their different customs and traditions. The Zande buried their dead in graves situated within their regions, abiding by the will of the dead when asking for being buried in their houses. The grave is usually dug from east to west, with men laid in the graves in different positions different from those of women. Both are laid on their backs, with men’s faces pointing to the west as the Zande believe that men will be resurrected in the direction of sunrise. Women’s heads are pointed to the east, with their faces to the west in the belief that women will be resurrected in the direction of the west. The grave is one meter and half deep, with the dead body laid in its northern part. When a Zande passes away, drums are beaten to announce that to others to take part in the funeral. Burial rites are sometimes postponed for two days. Following burial of the dead, the Zande load barrels of food and native drinks (Marisa) as a funeral rite. The dead is carried to his grave on a wooden bed, shrouded in his best clothes, with his hair shaved. If the dead is from ordinary people, the drums will be beaten for (7-10) days. But when a Sultan passes away, the drums are sometimes beaten for three months. According to the Zande customs, a wife can get married to a relative of her deceased husband or may choose one from outside the family. Hair Dressing: The Zande are among the Equatorian tribes known for cleanliness of their dresses and houses. The Zande shave their hair in a way different from the rest of other tribes, theirs being made in an ordinary way. They also shave their beards and grow them only when they are mourning a relative. They too, shave their moustache , leaving a little part down the nose. The Zande women wear dressing fashions coming from Central Africa and Zaire. The Zande families shave their hair in the event of the death of a relative. Celebrations The Zande dance at the sound of drums and Zairian Music. The most popular drums are: - 1- Gosu drum Made of wood, hollowed out in the middle to make it sound louder. It is used on happy social occasions and official ones. 2- Benin-bo drum Made of fourteen pieces of wood and played by two persons, at celebrations and on official occasions. 3- Anzoro drum Made of steel and played on official and popular occasions. Garza drum A drum bound in leather, one meter long and has a conical shape used on official occasions. These drums were used by the Zande in the past, but currently, the Zande youth play Zairean music dancing at taped rhythms. The absence of an animal wealth allowed for ample leisure time which the Zande passed dancing. The Zande are fond of dancing at the rhythm of old songs especially at the time of crop harvesting. . During the era of the missionaries dancing halls similar to that existing in Juba were established in Yambyo, Tombura, Nzara and Sarsi-yubu. The Zande sometimes dance in a way similar to that in the north by bending their necks over the back of their shoulders. Chapter (3) The Zande Economy Regions of western Equatotia are rich in their agricultural resources. The Zande region in particular is rich in fruits such as pine apples, apples, bananas, lemon and bee honey. The Zande depend on their trade links with Zaire bringing home these commodities such as cigarettes which they market in the town of Wau. The Zande are the sole southern Sudanese tribe that do not depend on animal wealth because of the existence of disease carrying flies in their region. Though their region has fish wealth, it is not considered a major economic resource, nor do they depend on coffee beans and tea produced in that region. The Zande hunt animals in their jungles and sell their meat and leather in Wau town. To sum it up, the Zande economy is built on fruits dealing in cigarettes , bee honey and animal leather. According to narratives, upon entering Sudanese territories, the Zande clashed with the Dinkas in Lakes, Yirol, Rumbek and Shambe who gave them a large number of cows. Because the Zande were not familiar with cattle raising, they tied the cows to their legs while herding them to where they were bound for. Came the night, the Dinka began repetition of songs as a message to their cows to return home and so the cows responded by running homeward dragging to death a number of Zande. Ever since then, the Zande refrained from animal raising. Instead, they raised chicken and dogs for hunting wild animals. Transportation: The thick jungles in western Equatoria have been detrimental to construction of paved roads. Western Equatoria is linked up with Wau by a major road that crosses Albo bridge, separating Bahr El Ghazal state from that of western Equatoria and passing across Nuju mountains to the town of Tombura. There are other two roads, one linking the Zande region with Juba, crossing Yambyo province and another linking western Equatoria with Zaire., Bicycles are the sole means of carrying goods from Zaire and other regions. Animal leather as used as internal pipe for bicycles While traveling on the Wau-Tombura- Yambyo - Juba road, they use trucks brought by Arab traders. Mode of Daily Life: The Zande refrain from work and therefore spent most of their day dancing at the rhythm of Zairean Music. Men are either engaged in farming, growing coffee beans, tea or nuts, maize and sugar cane, others deal in cigarettes and honey while some others hunt animals, or practice handicraft such as manufacturing of beds, chairs and household utensils, all made of wood. Women are either engaged in collection of honey or farming, whereas youth from both sexes spend their time at home dancing. Unlike other tribes, the Zande are a peaceful tribe and refrain from hard work. Section (2) Chapter (1) 1- The church in the Zande region 2- Islam in the Zande region 3- Other religious beliefs Chapter (2) 1- Tribes speaking Zande Dialect Chapter (3) 1- The Turkish era 2- The Mahadya era Divinity Historians believe that 60% of the Zande are followers of heavenly religions, 40% are Catholics and 20% are followers of the Episcopal Church, 30% of the Zande clans are Muslims, while 10% are followers of Kujur whom they believe as capable of doing good and evil. The Zande is the only southern tribe that doesn’t embrace animism, with followers of Kujur, representing a small percentage. The Church in the Zande region Sudan knew the Church at the hands of the Roman Empire during the period from (257-272) AD. The Romans stormed Bilad Al Nuba, advancing south to Equatoria where the Zande lived. As a result, most of the Zande embraced Christianity, while the missionaries had a late access to those living in jungles. Studies indicated that the missionaries targeted the large numbers of the Zande living in the towns of Yambyo, Nzara, where the churches were well established. The first of those churches was established in the town of Yambyo (Wangu region) and is the oldest in the Zande region. A theological institute was simultaneously established with that church, and was attended by a number of Zande on whom the missionaries depended for propagation of Christianity to their fellows in caves and bushes. The missionaries too, established a girls school in Mopoi and Sarsi-Yubu, in addition to a church considered the largest in southern Sudan today. Schools attached to that church and those of Tombura and Na’andi were established , the three churches said to be the oldest in the region. As confirmed by historians the churches were built of local materials, with (10) miles between each. In jungles, prayers were performed under trees till a church was established. The Missionaries found the climate conducive to their mission since the Zande actively responded to them. The influence of the church in the Zande region, retarded the Islamic call especially that the Arab traders and Falatas who sponsored that call came for purpose of trading. However, those Duat were able to convert 30% of the Zande in towns like Yambyo , Tombura, Nzara and Sarsai-yubu. The church was able o exert its influence on the Zande through their Sultans to serve its own ends. As is generally accepted among southern tribes , disobedience of the sultan amounted to renunciation of tribal and clan ties. Islam and the Zande As referred to earlier, the majority of the Zande embraced Islam and a few others believed in Kujur. The Christian missionaries entered the Zande region from Juba and into Yambyo Karam Allah , one of the Mahadya leaders also entered through the same route. Why the missionaries outdid the Islamic Duat Zande dialect was because the former learned the Zande dialect and so were able to communicate with the people while the Mahadya leader conveyed his call in Arabic which the Zande did not understand. Arab traders in the region succeeded to propagate the Islamic call after the local folk began to understand Arabic. Indeed, Arab traders contributed to the spread of Islamic call in the Zande region as was manifested in the construction of mosques in Yambyo, Tombura, Sarsi-yubu and Nzara respectively. The Zande is one of the southern Sudanese tribes that mixed with Arabs to a greater degree, with members of that tribe speaking Arabic fluently. Other Religious Beliefs Christianity and Islamic calls were reported not to have reached followers of kujur among the Zande because they lived in caves and jungles. Another belief was that both the Christian missionaries and Islamic Duat approached these people but they were reluctant to respond because of the strong belief in kujur. Up to this day, followers of kujur believe in kujur powers of healing and his ability to cause good and evil. Kujur rites captivate the psyches of their followers. Christian Missions: As documented , the missionaries left the doors of the church schools wide open before all the Zande people. Governmental schools were opened in the Zande region in 1962and those who came from privileged families had access to educational opportunities. Others who came from ordinary families attended church schools that provided them with accommodation and living, to later become missionaries. Some attended near by schools and did not transfer to other ones. The Zande showed keenness on sending their sons to schools, be they church or governmental ones. Education: The colonialists and the church deemed it in their interest to have no governmental schools in southern Sudan to keep the people ignorant of the national educational curricula. That blackout lasted until a large number of schools were built in the Zande region, (20-25) elementary schools, and (8-12) intermediate schools, all were under the control of missionaries who spent generously on education and sent outstanding students to study theology. Sons of Muslim Zande families received their schooling at schools attached to mosques which were established by Muslim traders. Other Zande educated themselves on their own like Dinkas. The Zande were very much concerned about the education of their children to prepare them for jobs other than marginal ones. Church schools used English language as a medium of instruction up to the early sixties, with governmental schools students taught simple Arabic as optional. Girls education in the Zande region was introduced since the missionaries arrived there. The Zande spread over the region of Tombura up to Nujo mountains, Yambyo and Nzara regions in western Equatoria. Other tribes living in the Zande region, intermarrying with them and speaking their dialect are: - 1- Baka tribe It is one of the Zande clans but has settled in the Zande region of Maridi and is under the Administration by the Zande sultan of Tombura. It has its own dialect but speaks Zande dialect too. It is difficult to differentiate between the two though there are slight differences of traditions and customs between them. 2- Muru Shares with Zande the region of Maridi, which is their home of origin. The Muru are under the administration of Zande sultan of Maridi They intermarried with the them and having in common some customs and traditions, with the death rites slightly different. 3- Avukaya This is a clan of Fertit tribe in Bahr El Ghazal. It has migrated o the Zande region and settled there since old times. The Balanda tribe lives east of Yambyo and spread on the borders between eastern Equatoria and Bahr El Ghazal. That Balanda clan speaks the Zande dialect, their mother tongue being spoken by Fertit of Bahr El Ghazal. They also share some customs and traditions with the Zande and Fertit. Their skin color and features are similar to those of the Zande. Balanda are dark-skinned, short and have reddish hair. They live on farming and animal hunting. They are under the administration of a Zande sultan. Balanda Buzya: Historian believe that Balanda Buzya are a clan of Bahr El Ghazal Fertit who live in the state of Western Bahr El Ghazal. This clan lives in Bussere and spread south to the region of Buzya which lies to the south-west of Wau. Balanda Buzya customs and traditions are different from those of the Zande but are similar to those of the Zande-Balanda, both descending from Fertit tribe. The Balanda lived in the Zande region for long and learned the Zande dialect. Their features and color resemble those of the Zande, particularly the Zande-Balanda. The marriage traditions of this clan are not different from those of the Zande. The Fertit, as historically documented , have come from central Africa and settled in Bahr El Ghazal state up to the region of Raja and the borders between western Equatoria and Bahr El Ghazal, Lakes Dinka They neighbor the Zande in the north-western direction of the former’s region. Because the Zande do not possess animal wealth, Lakes Dinka market their cattle there. Lakes Dinka have learned the Zande dialect to conduct their marketing in the Zande region, but there are no intermarriages between the two. Chapter (3) Turkish Domination Era Turkish invaders were not able to advance to the Zande region. They arrived in Juba town and from there they advanced on Sultan Jambo region lying between eastern and western Equatoria. When they came to Yambyo region, they were met with resistance by Sultan Youdi who lost a large number of his fighters at that battle in the aftermath of which, the invaders captured east of Yambyo, and from there they stormed all parts of the Zande region. The colonialists succeeded in making southerners take them into their confidence by treating them well and posing in theirs eyes as liberators from slavery. The Turks showed concern about the Zande customs and traditions, sharing with them their social occasions. They established relationship[ with sultans and dignitaries, bringing them valuable objects. Studies showed how the Turks considerably changed the Zande conception of life. Upon entry of the Mahadya forces in the Zande region, the Turks instigated the latter recalling slave-hunting incursions . as a result the Zande led by Sultan Zimbiny, resisted those force but were defeated. Two regions called “Aba”, today exist in Zaire and Uganda. Following the defeat of the Zande at the hands of the Mahadya forces , the colonialists left the Zande region for Zaire. It was reported that, the Mahadya forces were led by one of Zubeir aides called Abdel Sumad. The existence of a region called ‘Aba” in both Uganda and Zaire is an evidence of the Mahadya forces arrival at the borders of the two countries. Slave-trade Researchers showed evidence of how colonialists had sown in Africans the seeds o hatred for Arabs since long ago. Both Portugal and Spain were engaged in slave-trade in Africa, hunting Africans with strong bodies to sell them to work in Sugar cane farms in Spain, Portugal, Brazil and Britain. Before this trade was banned, the missionaries impressed on Africans that it was the Arabs who came from Muslim countries who were behind that trade. That allegation appealed to the primitive African who saw his salvation in the church as was portrayed by those missionaries. This misinformation was handed down by one generation to another and so colonialists and priests instilled in southern tribes the concept of the existence of a social problem with ethnic and religious dimensions. The Zande tribe was not the exception. They held the same mistaken concept which is in fact opposed to the reality of the psychological build-up of people both in northern and southern Sudan. But following the migration of northern traders to the Zande region and their mixing with the local folk, these concepts began to die out. The Zande from north of Tombura who were hunted as slaves and herded in fenced yards, were freed by the Zande themselves after countering slave-hunting expeditions. The Zande and the Mahadya According to studies on the history of Sudan, the Zande had no role in Mahadya call which reached all the Zande regions. By that time, the Zande were ruled by sultan Zimbinya who controlled the regions of Yambyo, Tombura and Nzara. The Zande resisted the Mahadya forces upon their arrival at east of Yambyo, but the latter defeated them and reached Sudan’s borders with Zaire and Uganda. Why the Zande did not take part in the Mahadya was blamed on the former’s belief that the Mahadya were seeking to hunt slaves to sell them in Egypt and Arabia especially that expeditions by Mohamed Ali Pasha were reminiscent of that. Some historians blame the passive attitude of the Zande towards the Mahadya on the Zande weak sense of belonging to a land to which they migrated from Zaire. Two Mahadya leaders were said to have propagated the Mahadya in southern Sudan . Al Zaki Tumal was the leader who propagated the call in that part, while the other leader Abdel Hakim, assisted Al Zaki storm the Zande region. Following their defeat by the Mahadya forces some Zande sultans supported the Mahadya and declared their embracing for Islam such as sultan Hassan and sultan Zugnaya who was named Ibrahim. Other clan sultans and citizens followed suit. Section (3) 1- Chapter One a- Internal system of Administration b- Customary law 2- Chapter two a- Public personalities b- Political leaders c- Conclusion Internal System of Administration Like the rest of southern Sudan tribes, the Zande internal system of administration is based on customary laws common to all clans. As mentioned earlier, the Zande have come from Zaire and all clans speak the same dialect with some slight differences regarding names of some objects. Like other tribes, the Zande have a Sultan and a deputy sultan and another person who ranks below that agent called “Mkungu”. The Mkungu is assigned resolving of simple disputes. Zande sultans have guards whose job is to enforce the orders of the sultan and his deputy. They also summon the accused or arrest them. The sultan is held in high esteem and is considered the tribes spokesman, as well as he is assigned resolving disputes between clans. The sultan presides over native court sessions and represents the tribe on popular or official occasions. The orders of the sultan are obeyed by members of the tribe, and all are put at his disposal. In southern Sudan the sultan can be a two edged weapon. If well treated by the government, it can win his support, but if maltreated, he can mobilize all his tribe in opposition to it. As proven, the rise of native administration in Sudan during the colonial era was intended for strengthening the grip of colonialists on all Sudanese tribes. That leads us to conclude that peace in southern Sudan can be boosted through attending to that native administration if it is oriented towards realization of real peace. In the case of the Zande, power is also inherited by sons after the death of the father except in rare cases when none of the sons is eligible for the office. In this case, the sultan designates a successor from outside the family during his life time. It is known that before aging, the sultan names a successor son whom he trains on leadership to assume the office after his father’s death. In this way, succession of the sultan will; be pre-determined. Selection of a new sultan from outside the sultan’s family is scarce and should be agreed upon by all the members of the tribe, Big fortunes, having sons and social status are merits of eligibility to being a sultan. It was found out that the sons of sultans had access to educational opportunities by virtue of family status. As far as the Zande were concerned, the Italian missionaries availed them with educational opportunities by building a number of schools in their regions. Moreover, the Zande were preoccupied with the education of their sons because they were not engaged in raising of animal wealth like the Dinkas, Shilluk, Nuer, Mundari and other Equatorian tribes. Customary Law The Zande like other southern Sudanese tribes, are subject to customary laws that apply to all clans. The sultan who is vested with wide powers enforces the customary laws. The sultan is in fact the chief justice who looks into serious disputes, with normal and little disputes looked into by the deputy sultan and his agent respectively, each empowered with defined authority. The Zande court is formed of: - 1- The sultan as chief justice 2- The deputy sultan 3- Sultan agent 4- Sultan guards. The sultan counsels with the dignitaries and mayors as regards resolving of disputes. As a result, the role of the sultan earned significance in resolving tribal disputes particularly border ones. Historical evidence proved that customary laws were purely derived from customary traditions and customs applicable in cases of: - a- Murder The murderer is immediately handed over to the sultan to avoid clashes between the two families that arise as a result of delaying the case. The sultan would immediately order his guards tom contain the situation, summons the two families concerned together with senior chiefs to counsel them, after looking into the case, a harsh sentence will be used against the party indicted. Most fines are paid in chicken because the Zande do not posses animal wealth. In the event that the family of the murderer refused to pay indemnity, the sultan guards, with nmurder cases sometimes referred to government authorities would execute him. In cases when murders are not pre-meditated, the family of the murdered would forgive. Death sentences in cases of pre-meditated murders are immediately executed. 2 Adultery This crime was almost absent in the past. In instances when this crime occurred, the sultan used to issue his verdict immediately to avoid clashes between the families of the adulterer and abused. The sultan would decide on the case in the presence of the elders from both families, and his guards would execute the sentence. In the tradition of the Zande, adultery amounted to hose breaking and so the adulterer’s penis was cut. In case the abused is married, she would be considered as of the date of issue of the sultan’s verdict, leaving the sons with their father. Unlike other southern Sudanese tribes, where adulterers are returned to their husbands, with the offender fined between (10-18) cows that go to the abused husband’s family, that tradition did not exist among the Zande. The sultan’s wife enjoyed a special status among the Zande. When met by a man while walking along the village lanes, or in the jungle, that man would either walk in the opposite direction or give way to her, putting tree branches where he gave way to the Sultan’s wife putting tree branches where he gave her the way to the sultan’s wife. Men who did not comply with this tradition were considered adulterous, arrested and sometimes sentenced to cut of penis or executed. The Zande sultan had more than 20 wives. When inspecting the conditions of the tribe, a young woman who would later become his wife, without her family objecting to that, would accompany him. Rape Crimes Rape crimes are almost non-existent among the Zande. Whenever such crimes occur, they are seriously dealt with without clashes taking place between families. Rape cases among southern Sudanese tribes are often the result of emotional relationships among young couples. In the Zande traditions, it could lend to the couple getting married to one another. But if rape was meant for something other than marriage, the girls would report that to her family, identifying the rapist. The family may reject his as husband tot heir daughter if he was weak or came from a poor family and in this case bloodshed often ensues. However, such occurrences were almost absent among the Zande because of he close relationships among them Selection of a fiancé at the age of puberty by young Zande helped to reduce cases of rape. But the fall of the Zande region to rebels in the 1990s marked family disintegration the result of which was the withering away of their traditions and customs. As mentioned earlier, today the Zande is the only southern Sudanese tribe threatened of perishing. Zande Public personalities 1- Joseph Tombura 2- Angelo Beda Bambaro – Deputy chairman, CCSS 3- Dominic Casiano Member, former RCC 4- Isaiah Paul Reyani – Governor of Western Equatoria 5- Alison Manani Magaya – Deputy Speaker N. A. 6- Habakkuk Soro – Opposition military officer 7- Samuel Abu John – Opposition military officer 8- Alison Manyi Yasuqu – RTD major General Police 9- Father Flintho Gumanzo Aboni – priest 10- Raphael Khamis 11- Roda Bunambu Westo Amit – Women’s organization 12- Yunis Awad Hajana Baya – Secretary General W. E. 13- Qassim Abdalla Suleiman 14- James Vatamaya Sultans 1- Sango Margi Yambyo Outskirts 2- Bangusu Abyaia 3- Yambyo Badi Yambyo 4- Mangora Nzara 5- Zimbiri Sultan general Yambyo 6- Tombura Father of the politician Joseph Tombura 7- Yakaidi 8- Zuqmbara 9- Hassan Naandi 10- Hilary Balo Loguk 11- William Winingo 12- Clement Juma Bazya 13- Qassim Barnaba Kasiga 14- Robert Bedni Alla 15- Paulino Zaidi